Chapter 6
Summary by James R. Martin, Ph.D., CMA
Professor Emeritus, University of South Florida
Chapters 1 and 2
| Chapters
3 and 4 | Chapter 5
Chapter 6: A Dictionary of Religious Literacy
This is a fairly short list of religious terms, key stories, doctrines, practices, symbols, scriptures, people, places, phrases, groups, and holidays of the world's religions. Learning five thousand terms is not necessary. This chapter focuses on what U.S. citizens need to know to understand their country and the world. I have included all the terms listed in this Chapter along with some brief definitions, but there are more comprehensive definitions for all of these terms on the internet.
Religion by the Numbers
4 Gospels - The four narrative of the life of Jesus in the New Testament. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The Gospels refer to "good news" about the birth, teachings, miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus.
4 Noble Truths - Buddhism's core teachings by the Buddha in his sermon at Sarnath. They include the Existence of Suffering, the Origin of Suffering, the Cessation of Suffering, and the Path to the Cessation of Suffering.
5 Ks - Symbols that identify male members of a Sikh order called the Khalsa. They include: kes (uncut hair), kangha (comb, kirpan (ceremonial sword), kara (steel wrist bangle), kachh (short pants).
5 Pillars of Islam - They include: Shahadah (witnessing that "There is no god but God and Muhammad is the messenger of God, Salat (prayer in the direction of Mecca five times a day), Sawm (fasting during the lunar month of Ramadan), Zakat (almsgiving to the poor via an asset tax) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime for all that are physically and financially able).
7 sacraments - For Catholics and most Orthodox Christians they include baptism, confirmation, reconciliation or confession, Holy Communion, marriage, ordination of priests, and anointing the sick or last rites. For Protestants they include only baptism and Holy Communion.
7 deadly sins - They include: pride, envy, greed, anger, slouth, lust, and gluttony.
8-Fold Path of Buddhism - Charts the course from suffering to nirvana divided into three parts: wisdom (right view and right intention), morality (right speech, right conduct, right livelihood), and concentration (right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration).
10 Commandments - The Bible contains two versions of these religious and moral laws given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai (Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21). Jews, Catholics, and Protestants have different versions. See the Appendix for the answer to this question.
12 apostles - The apostles were the original followers, or disciples of Jesus, and include Peter, Andrew, James (the greater), John, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Thomas, James (the lesser), Jude, Simon, Judas. After Judas betrayed Jesus and committed suicide, he was replaced by Matthias.
What Americans Need to Know (Alphabetical list)
Abraham - The Hebrew Bible patriarch and father of the "Abrahamic" religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Abraham appears in Genesis and inters into a covenant with God.
Abrahamic tradition - See Judeo-Christian-Islamic.
Adam and Eve - God creates Adam (the first human) in Genesis. Then he creates Eve (the first woman) out of one of Adam's ribs and instructs the two not to eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. They are tricked by a serpent and eat the "forbidden fruit." In response God banishes them from Eden.
Adventism - See Seventh-Day Adventism
African Methodist Episcopal Church - One of the largest black church denominations in the U.S. founded in Philadelphia by Richard Allen in 1816.
Ahimsa - A term in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism that translates as nonviolence.
Allah - The term for God in Arabic and Islam.
Al-Qaeda -International terrorist organization founded in the late 1980s by Saudi-born financier Osama bin Laden. Al-Qaeda is best known for hijacking three jets on September 11, 2001 and crashing them into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a Pennsylvania field.
Anglicanism - See Episcopalianism.
Apocalypse - Catastrophic end times battle where the forces of good triumph over the forces of evil and bring in a new age of justice and peace.
Apostles' Creed - A short statement of Christian beliefs attributed to Jesus' apostles but actually composed long after their deaths.
Armageddon - This is a Christian term that appears once in the Bible (Revelation 16:16) and refers to a battle and the place where the battle between good and evil will take place in the last days.
Atheism - The denial of the existence of any and all gods. Some religions are atheistic including Buddhists and Taoists.
Atonement - Christians disagree on how the death of Jesus on the cross somehow helps sinners win their salvation. Theologians also differ on whether Jesus died for everyone (unlimited atonement) or just for the elect (limited atonement), and over whether the benefits of atonement are available to everyone, or only to those who partake of the Catholic sacraments.
Baptism - Rite of initiation into the Christian community. It involves immersing candidates in water or sprinkling or pouring water on them. Christians view this as dying and rising to new life, and a cleansing of sins an infusion of the Holy Spirit.
Baptists - The largest Protestant group in the United States. They reject infant baptism in favor of believers' baptism. Baptists were originally advocates of the separation of church and state, but this changed somewhat after the 1980s and some Baptist (e.g., Jerry Falwell and Ray Moore) became opponents of strict separationist.
Bhagavad Gita - Most popular scripture in contemporary Hinduism called the Mahabharata written in Sanskrit between 200 BC and 200 AD. It describes three paths to God: the disciplines of devotion (bhakti yoga), action (karma yoga), and knowledge (Jnana yoga).
Bible - The Jewish and Christian scriptures are both referred to as the Bible. The Hebrew Bible includes twenty-four books divided into three sections: the Law consisting of five books attributed to Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), the Prophets (Jeremiah, Isaiah, etc.), and the writings (Psalms, Proverbs, and Job). The Christian Bible consists of the Old and New Testaments. Most Christian groups include twenty-seven books in the New Testament: four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John); the Acts of the Apostles; twenty-one letters, or Epistles, many attributed to Paul; and the apocalyptic book of Revelation. The Protestants' Old Testament includes the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible but divides them into thirty-nine books, for a total of sixty-six books. Roman Catholic Bibles include seven additional Old Testament books for a total of seventy-three books. There are dozens of translations available. Many Americans belief the Bible is the word of God, but not everyone agrees. Thomas Paine called the Bible "a book of lies and contradictions and a history of bad times and bad men."
Bin Laden, Osama (1957-2011) - Head of the international terrorist organization al-Qaeda. He declared a holy war against the U.S. forces in 1996 and was linked to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 that killed thousands of people in New York City, Washington DC, and rural Pennsylvania. He was shot and killed at his compound in the Pakistani city of Abbottabad by U.S. Navy SEALS on May 2, 2011.
Black Muslims - Black nationalist sect the Nation of Islam founded by W. D. Fard. in Detroit in the 1930s. Fard preached a combination of black nationalism and Islam and denounced whites as "blue-eyed devils."
Born-again Christian - Those who suddenly experience a "new birth" by accepting Jesus as their Savior and Lord. The term comes from John 3:7 where Jesus says, "Ye must be born again."
Buddhism - Religion founded in northern India by Siddhartha Gautama known as the Buddha believed to be either the fourth century BC or between the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Converts "take refuge" in the "Three Jewels": the Buddha; the Dharma (teachings); and the Sangha (Buddhist community). They see dukkha (suffering or unsatisfaction) as the core human problem and trace suffering to ignorance. Practitioners see eliminating desire and ignorance as the solution to suffering and this is enlightenment, or nirvana. They do not see Buddha as a god.
Calvinism - Protestant theological tradition based on the teachings of John Calvin (1509-1564). It has two foundational tenets: the absolute sovereignty of God, and the total depravity of human beings. Calvinist also believed in double predestination: God fated every human being before birth to either heaven or hell. The Five Points of Calvinism include total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and the perseverance of the saints.
Catholicism, Roman - One of Christianity's three main branches, and led by the pope. Catholicism is administered by a hierarchy of bishops and priests, and the pope has been empowered to speak on matters of faith and morals. Catholics recognize seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, reconciliation or confession, Holy Communion, marriage, ordination of priest, and anointing of the sick or last rites. They restrict the priesthood to males and require them to take a vow of celibacy.
Christ - Derived from Christos, the Greek term for messiah or "anointed one."
Christian Coalition - Conservative political pressure group supported by evangelicals and Catholics established in 1989 by Pat Robertson. It promotes "family values" and America's godly heritage.
Christianity - The largest of the world's religions. Sin is the problem and salvation is the answer. The key to salvation and a life in heaven, lies in incarnation, crucifixion, and the resurrection of Jesus recorded in the New Testament. Jesus is described as the son of God and the son referred to in the Trinity. The Christian view is that his death somehow makes salvation possible.
Christmas - A Christian holy day commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ in a manger in Bethlehem, and an official U.S. holiday marked by Santa Claus, trees and gift exchanges.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - See Mormons.
City upon a hill - Refers to a sermon delivered in 1630 on board the Arabella off the New England coast by John Winthrop, the Massachusetts Bay Colony governor. "We shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of the people are upon us."
Confucius - See Confucianism
Confucianism - Religion (or philosophy) founded by Confucius (551-479 BC) that focuses on this world rather than the next with no interest in theological speculation. The goal was social harmony with emphasis on humaneness (jen) and piety (hsiao). Confucius stressed ritual propriety (li) related to the Five Great Relationships: between parent and child; between elder and younger siblings; between husband and wife; between friend and friend; and between ruler and subject. He also taught the Negative Golden Rule: "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you." Confucianism along with Taoism and Buddhism constitutes one of China's "Three Teachings."
Congregationalism - Mainline Protestant denomination of the United Church of Christ. The name is derived from their insistence on the autonomy of the local congregation.
Conservative Judaism - This represents the middle path between Orthodox and Reform Judaism. Conservative Jews accept the ordination of women, mixed-gender seating in synagogues, and biblical criticism. It was organized with the founding in 1913 of the United Synagogue of America.
Creationism - The belief that the account of the creation in Genesis is historically and scientifically correct in that God created all species in a short period of time (not necessarily in seven days) and that human beings are not the result of Darwin's random process of natural selection. A similar term is "intelligent design." Almost all scientists view creationism and intelligent design as pseudoscientific. In 2005 a U.S. district judge in Dover Pennsylvania agreed ruling that there is "overwhelming evidence" that intelligent design is a religious view and not a scientific theory.
Crusades - These were military campaigns in the eleventh through the fifteenth centuries waged by Christians to recapture the Holy Lands from Muslims. They were successful but damaged the Christian-Muslim relationships creating mistrust and hostility that continues today.
Dalai Lama - The spiritual leader of the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism and political leader of the Tibetan people. Each Dalai Lama is said to be a reincarnation of his predecessor.
Daoism - See Taoism.
David and Goliath - Classic underdog story that appears in the Hebrew Bible. David was a small Israelite shepherd boy who would later become the second king of Israel and the author of Psalms. Goliath was a Philistine giant. David felled Goliath in battle with a single stone slung from his slingshot. This caused the Philistines to scatter and led to a victory for the Israelites.
Decalogue - See the 110 Commandments.
Deism - A rationalistic religion based on reason and nature rather than revelation. Deists reject miracles and prayer and describe the Almighty as a Watchmaker who after creating the world, sits back and observes without intervening. They believe in God and in afterlife rewards and punishments and view morality as the essence of religion.
Disciples of Christ - A mainline American Protestant denomination that emerged in 1831. They put their faith in the New Testament.
Dispensational premillennialism - A core teaching of Protestant fundamentalism is that the end of the current dispensation (historical period) is imminent. It will conclude with the Rapture of believers into heaven. The antichrist will appear and Jesus will come down, defeat the Antichrist, and establish a thousand-year reign of peace and justice.
Easter- Christian holiday commemorating the resurection of Jesus three days after his crucifixion on Good Friday. It also includes marshmallow bunnies, chocolate eggs, flowers, and fancy new clothes.
Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1758) - American philosopher, theologian and Congregationalist preacher whose church in Northamption Massachusetts was the center of the Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s. His theology attempted to synthesize "head religion" with "heart religion" or the intellect and the emotions.
Eld - Arabic term for feast refers to two festivals in the Muslim calendar: Eid al-Fitr (feast of breaking the fast after Ramadan), and Eid al-Adha (feast of sacrifice).
Eightfold Path of Buddhism - See 8-fold Path of Buddhism
Encyclicals - Official letters from the Roman Catholic Church on matters of faith, practice, and morals.
Episcopalianism - A major Protestant denomination closest to the Roman Catholic tradition.
Establishment clause - See First Amendment.
Eucharist - See Holy Communion
Evangelicalism - This terms refers to theologically conservative Protestants who stress the experience of being converted or "born again." Evangelicals view the Bible is inspired by the authoritative Word of God, and that salvation comes by faith in the atoning death of Jesus Christ. They differ from fundamentalists who view the Bible as the infallible Word of God. Many are conservative Republicans, but some are liberal or moderate.
Exodus - The second book of the Hebrew Bible and story of the flight of the Israelites and Moses out of slavery in Egypt into the Promised Land.
Falwell, Jerry - See Moral Majority
Family values - A term used by the Republican Party in 1976 and 1980 that often serves as a proxy for "religious" in American political rhetoric.
Fatwa - Islamic legal opinion given by a legal scholar in the context of a particular school of law and in response to a specific question posed by a court or individual.
First Amendment - The First Amendment includes protections of freedom of speech, press, assembly, and petition. It also includes two clauses related to religion: the establish clause states that "Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion," and the free exercise clause that adds "or prohibiting the free exercise thereof."
Five Ks - See 5 ks.
Five Pillars of Islam - See 5 Pillars of Islam.
Four Noble Truths - See 4 Noble Truths.
Free exercise clause - See First Amendment.
Friends, Religious Society of - See Quakers.
Fundamentalism - Fundamentalist and evangelicals stress conversion and the Bible, oppose premarital sex, abortion, and homosexuality, but differ in the area of modernity. Fundamentalist are angry about theological modernism. The name came from the publication The Fundamentals (1910-1915), a twelve-volume series that made a distinction between true Christianity and liberal Protestantism. Fundamentalist emphasize biblical infallibility, the virgin birth of Jesus, miracles, the substitutionary atonement (i.e., Christ died for sinners), and Jesus' bodily resurrection.
Garden of Eden - See Adam and Eve.
Genesis - The first book in the Bible provides an account of creation in seven days, the characters such as Adam and Eve, the Serpent, Noah, Abraham, Sarah, Joseph, and the Pharaoh; places such as the Garden of Eden and Sodom and Gomorrah; events such as the creation, the flood, and the binding of Isaac; and themes such as the covenant between God and humans, the conflict between good and evil, and the battle of the sexes.
Gnosticism - The terms is Greek for wisdom that promises salvation through secret wisdom.
"God Bless America" - This term or something similar is frequently used by U.S. presidents at the end of their speeches.
Golden Rule - Expressed by Jesus as, "Do to others what you would have them do to you." (Matthew 7:12).
Good Samaritan - A parable of Jesus who spoke of a man who had been attacked and left for dead by the roadside. Many people passed by, but a person from Samaria stopped to help.
Gospel of wealth - Part Calvinism, part social Darwinism, and part laissez-faire capitalism, the gospel of wealth teaches that prosperity is God's reward for morality and hard work.
Graham, Billy (1918-2018) - Globe-trotting evangelist, evangelical, and Southern Baptist minister who was viewed by President Harry Truman as "counterfeit," but later was viewed as an unofficial American Protestant pope who prayed with Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Nixon, Johnson, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton.
Great Awakening - A series of revivals in the colonies between the 1720s and the 1760s. It split colonial Protestantism into the "New Lights" and the "Old Lights" and made evangelicalism the nation's dominant religious impulse.
Hadith - Islamic sacred tradition, second to the Quran, that relates the words and deeds of Muhammad and his companions as transmitted by trusted confidantes. A given hadith includes two parts: a text and a chain of authority. Some scholars view the hadith as analogous to the Christian New Testament. It stands as one of the two key sources of Islamic Law.
"Hail Mary" - See Mary
Hajj - See 5 Pillars of Islam
Hanukkah - Jewish eight day festival of lights commemorating a miracle and held around same time as Christmas.
Hare Krishnas - Members of the International Society of Krishna Consciousness a Hindu movement based on the teachings of the Bengali mystic Caitanya (1486-1533). Krishna is viewed as the one true God.
Hijab - Arabic term for a partition separating two things, commonly a veil or head covering worn by some Muslim women for the required modesty as interpreted from the Quran.
Hinduism - Diverse Indian religion that includes beliefs such as reincarnation, practices such as yoga, and scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bagavad Gita. It has no founder and no standard scripture, but features hundreds of divinities and is often described as polytheistic (belief in multiple gods). Hinduism is the religion of roughly 80 percent of India's population. Many Hindus in America are monotheists and insist that there is one Absolute Reality.
Holocaust - Refers to the mass murder of roughly six million Jews by the Nazis between 1933 and 1945 prompted in part by Christian theology that branded the Jews as Christ killers. The Nazis also murdered millions of homosexuals, Gypsies, Poles, Jehovah's Witnesses, the handicapped, and other non-Jewish minorities. It raised the profound theological question of the existence and goodness of God, and it helped pave the way for the creation of the state of Israel in 1948.
Holy Communion - A central act in Christian worship typically celebrated with bread and wine (or grape juice) recalls the Last Supper of Jesus and his disciples the night before his crucifixion. Christians differ over its importance, how often to celebrate it, how old the participants should be, and to what extent Jesus' presence is to be understood.
Imam - Sunni Muslims view the imam as simply the man who leads a congregation in prayer. Shiite Muslims view an imam as a descendant of Muhammad chosen by God to lead the community in all areas of belief and practice.
Immaculate Conception - Roman Catholic doctrine that Jesus' mother, Mary was sinless from conception.
Inerrancy, biblical - Fundamentalists Christian belief that the Bible is entirely without error in theology, ethics, history, geography, and science. Evangelicals, on the other hand believe the Bible was simply inspired by God.
Infallibility, papal- Roman Catholic doctrine that the pope can, under circumscribed circumstances speak without error in matters of "faith and morals." This doesn't apply to matters other than faith and morals.
Intelligent design - See creationism.
Islam - Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity. Muslims submit to Allah by practicing the Five Pillars of Islam: praying, fasting during the month of Ramadan, almsgiving, going to pilgrimage to Mecca, and testifying to the oneness of Allah and the prophet hood of the founder, Muhammad (370-632). Their holy book is the Quran and it includes emphasis on caring for the poor, a day of judgment, and bodily resurrection. Islam is divided into two major branches: Sunnis (the majority) and Shiites. Muslims are represented in the U.S. by a variety of pressure groups such as the Muslim Public Affairs Council, the American Muslim Council, and the American Muslim Alliance.
Islamism - This term refers to "political Islam," ultraconservative Islamic movements that use their religion to advance a political agenda.
Jehovah's Witnesses - A Protestant denomination, officially known as the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society based on the end-of-the-world teachings of Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916). Witnesses are aggressive door-to-door evangelizers, and publish the Watchtower magazine in 152 languages. They have unorthodox theological views such as a denial of the Trinity, refusing to salute the flag, serve in the military, or receive blood transfusions.
Jerusalem - Known by Muslims as al-Quds ("The Holy") and mentioned 600 times in the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem is a sacred place for Jews, Christians, and Muslims. All three have been fighting over control of Jerusalem since the crusades of the Middle Ages. Both Israelis and Palestinians have claimed Jerusalem as their capital. It is currently a city in Israel.
Jesus - Jesus is the central figure in Christianity and according to Christian tradition was born to the Virgin Mary, raised as a carpenter by her husband (Joseph) baptized by John the Baptist, and began his public ministry at roughly the age of thirty. He preached the kingdom of God, healed the sick, cast out demons, and gathered twelve apostles. Jewish authorities brought charges against him, conducted a trial against him before the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, and finally crucified him. According to the Christian tradition he rose from the dead three days later, appeared before his followers and ascended to heaven. Christians believe Jesus was "the only-begotten son of God." Buddhists revere him as a bodhisattva, or one who seeks awakening. Hindus embrace him as an avatar of God, and Jews view him as a great rabbi. Muslims do not believe Jesus was crucified or resurrected, but they regard him as a prophet and affirm the virgin birth and his ascension into heaven.
Jihad - Arabic word meaning "to struggle" or "make an effort." This includes each believers struggle against his or her lesser nature; and the physical struggle against the enemies of Islam. Traditionally this did not include Jews or Christians, and it followed strict rules prohibiting harming women, children, the old, the sick, and other noncombatants. Recently some radical Muslims have modified the rules against injuring women, children, civilians, and fellow Muslims. The only Muslims that stress jihad as "holy war" are Muslim extremists and extreme critics of Islam.
Joan of Arc (1412?-1431) - Fifteenth-century saint, martyr, and national hero. Not Noah's wife.
Judaism - One of the major world religions, based more on practice (observances) than belief. Jews attempt to follow the Torah, or Law. They rest once a week on the Sabbath (from Friday to sundown on Saturday), and celebrate holidays such as Passover (the Exodus of he Israelites from bondage), Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year), and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). Jewish scripture is the Tanakh or Torah that includes five books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; Neviim (prophetic and historical books); and Ketuvim (other writings including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and the Song of Songs). Judaism includes Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism, Orthodox Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism. There are also secular Jews.
Judas Iscariot - One of Jesus' twelve apostles that betrayed Jesus with a kiss in exchange for thirty pieces of silver. A different story indicates that Jesus asked him to do it.
Judeo-Christian - Expression that describes Judaism and Christianity as sister faiths in a hybrid religious tradition underlying the American way of life.
Judeo-Christian-Islamic - Expression that describes Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as sister faiths in a hybrid religious tradition underlying the American way of life.
Just-war theory - Catholic tradition related to how to conduct a war refers to principles of discrimination and proportionality. According to these concepts combatants should direct their aggression against other combatants rather than innocent civilians, and use force in proportion to the injury suffered. It prohibits torture and mandates proper care of prisoners of war. These tenets are codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949. Pacifists oppose these principles on the grounds that war can never be morally justifiable.
Kabbalah - Jewish teachings rooted in the Zohar, a multivolume thirteenth-century text offering mystical interpretations of Jewish law.
Kama Sutra - Hindu scripture originally intended as a sex manual for courtesans. Written by Vatsyayana around 400 BC it is an explicit treatise on sexual pleasure.
Karma - In Sanskrit, karma refers to an action and its consequences, or the idea that good actions are followed by positive consequences, and bad actions are followed by negative consequences. The term is used in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and other Asian religions.
King Jr., Martin Luther (1929-1968) - African American Baptist minister and civil rights leader in Atlanta, Georgia who used nonviolent civil disobedience to bring an end to racial segregation. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and was shot and killed by a white racist in Memphis, Tennessee in 1968. In 1983 President Reagan signed a bill declaring the third Monday of every January as Martin Luther King Day.
Kirpan - See 5 Ks.
Koran - See Quran.
Kwanzaa - Year-end festival held December 26- January 1 to commemorate the African heritage of African Americans.
Lao-tzu - See Taoism
Last Supper - Final meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his arrest, trial, and crucifixion.
Latter-day Saints, Church of Jesus Christ of. See Mormonism
Lord's Prayer - Christianity's most popular prayer, taught by Jesus to his followers. There are two New Testament versions, Matthew 6:9-13 and Luke 11:2-4.
Luther, Martin (1483-1546) - German leader of the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation and founder of Lutheranism. He is remembered for his Ninety-five Theses on indulgences (1517). Luther had two key ideas: justification by grace through faith; and that the "Bible alone" is authoritative for Christians, not as Catholics claimed the Bible and tradition.
Lutheranism - Protestant denomination based on the teachings of German religious leader Martin Luther. Lutherans follow the two key ideas mentioned above (See Luther, Martin) and along with Episcopalianism is one of the more liturgical or ceremonial Protestant groups.
Malcolm X - See Black Muslims.
Martyr - In Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, a martyr is someone who dies for a sacred cause. The Muslim martyr goes immediately to paradise according to popular Islam beliefs.
Mary - Mother of Jesus, and after Jesus, the most popular figure in Christian history.
Mary Magdalene - Jesus' most famous female follower, who was an eyewitness to his death, and the first witness to his resurrection. A controversial tradition is that she and Jesus married and had children, but this has no biblical support.
Mass - See Holy Communion
Mecca - The holiest city in the Islamic world, and located in Saudi Arabia. It is holy because Muhammad was born there, received his early revelation in a cave outside the city, and his triumphant return to Mecca in 630 BC replacing polytheistic worship with monotheistic worship of the one true God.
Medina - After Mecca, Islam's holiest city, also in Saudi Arabia, and where Muhammad founded the Islamic community and established himself as a prophet, patriarch, politician and military leader.
Megachurch - A large congregation often evangelical with attendance measured in the thousands. Usually there is lots of music, with live bands and song lyrics projected on large screens.
Messiah - The long-awaited king according to the Jewish tradition who will come at the last days, restore the Jews to the Promised Land, rebuild the Temple, and inaugurate the peaceful "world to come." Christians believe Jesus was the messiah as do Jews for Jesus. But Jews reject Jesus' messianic status.
Methodism - Mainline Protestant denomination founded in eighteenth-century England by John Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-1788). A distinctive teaching is that sanctification includes grace (as well as salvation) that represents religious and moral perfection.
Millennialism - See dispensational premillennialism
Monotheism - The view that there is only one God. Polytheism refers to the view that there are multiple gods, and atheism denies them all. Jews, Christians, and Muslims are all monotheistic.
Moral Majority - A pressure group founded in 1979 by Jerry Falwell a fundamentalist Baptist minister, Liberty University chancellor, and televangelist. It is a Judeo-Christian organization promoting family values by opposing pornography, homosexuality, abortion, feminism, and secular humanism.
Mormonism - A religious movement founded in New York in the 1820s by Joseph Smith Jr. (1805-1844) who published the Book of Mormon in 1830 that Mormons view as scripture. This includes the story of Jesus' visit to the New World after his resurrection and before his ascension, founding the true church among Native Americans. Their practices originally included polygamy (having more than one wife or husband), but the Mormon church renounced it in 1890. Mormons recognize four scriptures: the Bible, the Book of Mormon, Pearl of Great Price, and Doctrine and Covenants. Practices include baptism for the dead, and marriage for eternity. Beliefs include the corporeality of God (i.e., that God has a physical body) and eternal progression of humans into godhood. Mormons also have a health code (the Word of Wisdom) that prohibits ingestion of tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine.
Moses - A very important figure in the history of Judaism, and according to Muslims and Christians a great prophet. The five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to Moses. He was, as the story goes born in Egypt, hidden in reeds in the Nile River after the Pharaoh order the slaughter of all male Israelite babies. He was discovered and raised by Pharaoh's daughter. Later Moses became and adult, God spoke to him from a burning bush commanding him to lead the Israelites out of slavery and into the Promised Land. Leading his people out of Egypt and pursued by Pharaoh's armies, the Red Sea was parted by God allowing Moses and the Israelites to cross onto dry land. God then returned the waters and the soldiers drowned. Moses led the Israelites for forty years, but died at the age of 120 before he reached the Promised Land, i.e., Canaan.
Mosque/masjid - Mosque are prayer and learning centers where Muslims assemble on Fridays for congregational prayer, and students come for instruction in the Quran, hadith, and Islamic law.
Muhammad (570-632) - The founder and last prophet of Islam. An angel (Gabriel) appeared when Muhammad was around the age of 40 and delivered the first revelation from God that Muhammad's followers eventually wrote down as the Quran. Muhammad established himself as a prophet, patriarch, political, legal, and military leader. He was also a diplomat embracing Jews and Christians not as enemies but as "people of the book" with legitimate although corrupted revelations delivered by prophets by the one true God.
Nation of Islam. See Black Muslims
Nativity - The birth of Jesus in a Bethlehem stable.
New Testament - The second part of the Christian Bible (after the Old Testament) consisting of twenty-seven books: four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John); a narrative of the early church (Acts); twenty-one letters; and an apocalyptic text called Revelation.
Nirvana - The ultimate goal of Buddhism including the extinction of suffering, emancipation from ignorance, and liberation from the cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth.
Noah - According to Genesis 6-9 God decides to destroy the world because it has become too corrupt, but he warns Noah and commands him to build a great ship for himself and one male and female of each animal. The flood comes and kills every living thing not on the ship. After the flood, Noah sends out birds in search of land and eventually finds dry land. God promises never to destroy the earth again by water and seals the covenant with a rainbow.
Nonviolence - See ahimsa.
Old Testament - The first part of the Christian Bible. Protestant Bibles divide the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible into thirty-nine books. Catholic Bibles include seven additional books for a total of forty-six books. Jews do not accept the New Testament as scripture. The Old Testament describes the adventures of the Israelites, including a series of covenants made by God with Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses.
Orthodox Christianity - One of the three main branches of Christianity along with Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. Orthodox piety emphasizes ritual, more specifically the celebration of the Eucharist (commemorating the Last Supper). Priest can marry, but they insist on celibacy for bishops. They practice baptism by immersion and call confirmation chrismation because of its use of holy oil.
Orthodox Judaism - One of the three main branches of Judaism along with Reform and Conservative, and the most traditional and strict adherence to oral and written Law that is divinely inspired. For example, they strictly observe the Sabbath and eat only kosher food.
Paul - First-century church leader, author of many New Testament epistles, and according to some the founder of Christianity. He was a Pharisee and persecutor of Christians, but he saw the resurrected Christ on the road to Damascus and converted to Christianity (Acts 9:1-19). Then he traveled and preached the gospel and was arrested, tried, and executed by the Roman emperor Nero around 65 AD. In Christian history Paul is second only to Jesus.
Pentecostalism - Protestant movement that affirms the gifts of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2) on the first day of the Pentecost. Pentecostals emphasize experience and downplay doctrine. They insist on the importance of both conversion and grace (baptism in the Spirit) that can instill gifts as glossolalia (speaking in tongues), and prophecy and healing. Aimee Semple McPherson (1890-1944) was a famous Pentecostal preacher who many believe ran off with her lover and died of a drug overdose. In the 1980s there were sex scandals involving two Pentecostal preachers including Jim Bakker and Jimmy Seaggart. However, Pentecostalism continues to appeal to millions.
Pharisees - The term originally referred to Jews around the time of Jesus who believed in the bodily resurrection as opposed to the Sadducees who rejected the resurrection of the body.
Polytheism - Belief in multiple gods. Hinduism is typically described as polytheistic.
Pope - The Greek term for "father," refers to the bishop of Rome, who serves as the leader of the Roman Catholic Church and the head of state of Vatican City. Catholics believe that the pope can speak infallibly on matters of faith and morals.
Predestination - The belief that God predetermined the eternal destiny of each individual to heaven or to hell. It follows that humans have no free will.
Presbyterianism - Protestant denomination that adheres to the Reformed theology of John Calvin as expressed in the Westminster Confession (1646). They maintain a system of congregations, presbyteries (geographical units), synods (elected clergy and lay leaders) and general assembly (composed of synods).
Prodigal Son - One of the most popular parables of Jesus (Luke 15:11-32). As the story goes, the son leaves home with some money his father gave him, but soon squanders it all, returns home and begs his father for forgiveness. His father welcomes him back with a grand celebration.
Promised Land - In the Hebrew Bible the land of Canaan promised by God to Abraham and claimed by the people of Israel following their exile.
Protestantism - One of Christianity's three main branches along with Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. Protestantism began as a protest criticizing the Roman Catholic Church. Catholics argued that salvation results from faith and works, but reformers insisted that salvation depends on faith alone. Catholics based their tradition on the Bible and tradition, but Protestants insisted on the authority of the Bible alone. Protestantism broke from the pope and formed four branches: Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and Anabaptism.
Puritanism - Sixteenth-century Protestant movement to "purify" the Church of England of unscriptural beliefs and practices. They sought to create "Holy Commonwealths," and dealt strictly, sometimes lethally with Quakers, Baptists, and other dissenters who didn't share their understanding of the scripture. They did not believe that salvation was a matter of free will, but instead that God had predestined all human beings.
Quakers - Pacifist Protestant group founded in England in the 1650s by George Fox, and officially the Religious Society of Friends. They are best known for their opposition to war and refusal to take oaths. They forgo both clergy and sacraments, emphasize silence and spontaneity, and believe in the equality of all human beings before God. The American Friends Service Committee founded by Quakers in 1917 is still a key voice on issues of peace, justice, and human rights.
Quran - The holy book of Islam, and the ultimate authority for Muslims in law, religion, and ethics. According to Muslim tradition this scripture was miraculously revealed by Allah via angel Gabriel to Muhammad, memorized and written down by his companions and scribes and later compiled into a manuscript or book. Muslims believe the Hebrew and Christian Bibles were corrupted over time and the Quran exists today just as it was originally delivered to Muhammad. The Quran consist of 114 chapters including recitations received by Muhammad in Mecca and those received by him after his flight to Medina. The Quran teaches the unity of God, the prophet hood of Muhammad, the bodily resurrection, and coming judgment. It requires prayers, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage. Jesus is mentioned nearly one hundred times in the Quran as a miracle worker and messiah. They affirm the virgin birth of Jesus, but do not believe he was killed on a cross or raised from the dead.
Ramadan - A period of fasting from dawn to sunset, observed by Muslims during the ninth month of the Islamic new year. Travelers, the sick, the elderly, children, and pregnant and nursing women are generally exempt.
Reform Judaism - The most liberal of the three branches of Judaism including Orthodox and Conservative. Reform Jews ordain women unlike Orthodox Jews and worship in vernacular languages. Reform Jews also view a child as Jewish if either parent was Jewish while Orthodox Jews trace Jewish identity only through the mother.
Reformation - A movement in sixteenth-century Europe that produced four types of Protestantism: Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and Anabaptist traditions. The key idea was the rejection of papal and priestly authority in the name of individual conscience.
Reformed theology - See Calvinism
Reincarnation - Belief that souls take on new bodies after death as part of a never-ending cycle of birth, death, life, and rebirth known as samsara. Common among Hindus. Buddhists and many Christians also believe in some version of reincarnation, e.g., Buddhists deny the existence of a soul and believe instead that a person's consciousness is reborn.
Religious Right - Political movement dating from the late 1970s of conservative Christian groups attempting to revive family values and save the nation from moral bankruptcy. The Moral Majority was founded by televangelist Jerry Falwell in 1979, and the Christian Coalition was founded by Pat Robertson in 1989. Their main focus is on issues such as homosexuality, pornography, and abortion.
Resurrection - A belief that the dead will rise on some future day for final judgment, and their souls will be reunited with their bodies. It is closely associated with the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic conviction that a person is an indivisible combination of body and soul.
Revivalism - Christian worship services designed to produce mass conversions and intensify the commitments of existing Christians. Most popular among evangelicals and fundamentalists, and among Methodist, Baptist, Holiness, and Pentecostal groups.
Roman Catholicism - See Catholicism, Roman
Sabbath - The seventh day of the week designated as a day of rest because according to Genesis, God created the world in six days and then rested on the seventh. One of the Ten Commandments is to Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. This is the basis for Blue Laws that restrict activities on Sundays such as the sale of alcohol.
Sacraments - See 7 sacraments.
Sadducee - See Pharisees.
Satan - Satan or Lucifer is described as a fallen angel and God's primary antagonist in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Scientology - A new religious movement of the twentieth century founded in 1953 by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986). It seeks to uproot suffering (like Buddhism), but conservative Christian groups denounced it as a "cult of greed."
Scopes Trial - The trial of John Scopes for violating the law forbidding the teaching of evolution in public schools. This "Monkey Trial" was held in Dayton Tennessee in 1925. Scopes was convicted, but fundamentalists were humiliated by public opinion.
Second Coming - Belief that Jesus will return to judge the world at the end of time.
Second Great Awakening - A series of revivals in the United States in the early decades of the nineteenth century that established evangelicalism at the center of American religious life.
Second Vatican Council - Held by the Roman Catholic Church 1869-1870 in an effort to update the church in the modern world. Some examples of changes include: a greater openness to other forms of Christianity and other religions, a repudiation of both anti-Semitism and the dogma that there is no salvation outside the Church, and an affirmation of the dignity of the human person.
Secular humanism - The view that humans can get along just fine without God. Represented by the Council for Secular Humanism.
Separation of church and state - See First Amendment.
Sermon on the Mount - Most famous sermon delivered by Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew. It begins, "Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." It also includes the Lord's Prayer as well as the Golden Rule.
Serpent - See Garden of Eden.
Seven Deadly Sins - See 7 deadly sins.
Seven sacraments - See 7 sacraments.
Seventh-Day Adventism - A Protestant group based on the teachings of William Miller (1782-1849) who predicted the end of the world and Second Coming of Jesus on various date in 1843 and 1844.
Shahadah - See 5 Pillars of Islam.
Shariah- The Islamic path, or divinely inspired laws for individual and social life rooted in the Quran and the hadith.
Shite Islam - The smaller of the two main divisions in the Muslim tradition after Sunni Islam. Shiites view as authoritative not only the Quran and the hadith, but also the teachings of their imams.
Shirk - See tawhid.
Sikhism - A religious tradition founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1538) in northwestern India. Sikhs learn from gurus and refer to God as Sat Guru ("True Teacher") and respect ten gurus. Their scripture is the Adi Granth. It emerged out of a culture of Hinduism and Islam. Sikhs are strict monotheist and like Hindus believe in karma and reincarnation.
Social Gospel - A Protestant theological movement that seeks to apply Jesus' teachings to socioeconimic problems. Led by Baptist theologian Walter Rauschenbusch (1861-1918) its goal was to ameliorate the social ills brought on by capitalism, industrialization, and urbanization. Leaders ask themselves "What would Jesus do."
Sodom and Gomorrah - Cities destroyed by God for their sinfulness (Genesis 18 and 19). The people in these cities demand that Lot give over two angels staying with him so that they might "know" them. After Lot refuses the people attack his home but God strikes them blind and destroys their cities. Many Christians have understood this story as a condemnation of homosexuality. The term sodomy derives from this text.
Stations of the cross - Fourteen images found in some Roman Catholic and Episcopal churches showing Jesus through his last hours from his trial to when his corpse is laid in a tomb.
Sunni Islam - The largest of the two main divisions of the Muslim tradition who adhere strictly to the traditions of the Quran, and sayings and actions of Muhammad. Sunnis believe the prophet's successor should be elected by the Muslim the community rather than coming from Muhammad's bloodline as Shiites insist.
Taliban - A group of Islamic militants led by Mullah Mohammad Omar who took control of Afghanistan in 1994, running it as a theocratic state including rigid gender segregation, severe restrictions on female education, strict punishments (e.g., stoning for adultery and amputations for theft) and bans on television, music, and sports.
Tanakh - See Bible
Tao Te Ching - See Taoism.
Taoism - One of the three "Great teachings" of China along with Buddhism and Confucianism, it began with Lao Tzu (570-490 BC), the author of Tao Te Ching. Early Taoist criticized Confucianism as a tradition of meaningless etiquette and empty ritual, recommending instead a way of self-cultivation that emphasizes naturalness, spontaneity, and freedom. It is associated with a network of martial arts academies in the U.S. that teach karate or tai chi and various concepts such as yin/yang (complementarity of opposites), qi (vital energy), and wu-wei (nonaction).
Tawhid - Arabic for the uniqueness of God. Expressed in the Muslim creed the Shahadah.
Ten Commandments - See 10 Commandments.
Torah - refers to Jewish Law, both written and oral, but mainly the Hebrew Bible.
Tower of Babel - Story in the Hebrew Bible that appears in Genesis 11 about prideful people who try to build a tower to heaven. God causes them to speak many different languages. Unable to communicate they abandon their tower and scatter across the globe.
Trinity - The Christian doctrine that the God exists in a community of three divine persons - the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.
Unitarianism - Unitarians reject the divinity of Jesus and the doctrine of the Trinity. In other words they argue that there is one God, not three.
Upanishads - Hindu scriptures dating back to the first millennium BC. Teach the idea that humans can achieve moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth by realizing that the essence of the human soul is the Ultimate Reality.
Vatican II - See Second Vatican Council.
Vedas - The oldest and most authoritative Hindu scriptures.
Virgin birth - Christian teaching that Jesus was conceived by Mary without a human father.
Vishnu - The most popular Hindu deity having ten different incarnations including Buddha.
Wahhabism - Ultraconservative Sunni Muslim movement to reverse the moral decline of the Muslim world by returning to the pure Islam of the Quran and Muhammad.
Yin/yang - Opposite forces in the cosmos.
Yoga - A Sanskrit term originally meant "discipline," but in Hinduism there are many yogas including the discipline of knowledge (jnana yoga), the discipline of devotion (bhakti yoga) and exercise yoga (hatha yoga).
Zen - A Japanese term derived from the Sanskrit term dhyana meaning meditation. Zen is the meditation school of Buddhism.
Zionism - The movement to create a Jewish nation in the land of Zion or Israel/Palestine dating back to 586 BC. It took form in 1897 when Theodor Herzl aimed to create a home in Palestine secured by public law. Following the Holocaust a new consensus emerged among Jews and non-Jews for a Jewish state that was established in 1948.
_______________________________________
Related summaries:
Dawkins, R. 2008. The God Delusion. A Mariner Book, Houghton Mifflin Company. (Summary).
Martin, J. R. Not dated. Religious Affiliations Surveys 1972-2018 (Summary).
Martin, M. and K. Augustine. 2015. The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death. Rowland & Littlefield Publishers. (Note and Contents).
Miller, E. L. 1992. Questions That Matter: An Invitation To Philosophy, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. (Summary).
Shermer, M. and P. Linse. 2001. The Baloney Detection Kit. Altadena, CA: Millennium Press. Ten questions to ask when examining a claim. 1. How reliable is the source of the claim? 2. Does the source make similar claims. 3. Have the claims been verified by someone else? 4. Does this fit with the way the world works? 5. Has anyone tried to disprove the claim? 6. Where does the preponderance of evidence point? 7. Is the claimant playing by the rules of science? 8. Is the claimant providing positive evidence? 9. Does the new theory account for as many phenomena as the old theory. 10. Are personal beliefs driving the claim? Baloney detection kit